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Janko Keyboard

Janko keyboard

The Janko keyboard is a musical keyboard layout for a piano designed by Paul von Janko. Instead of the traditional row of white and black keys, the keyboard has an array of keys. C# D# F G A B C# D# F G A B C D E F# G# A# C D E F# G# A# C# D# F G A B C# D# F G A B C D E F# G# A# C D E F# G# A# C# D# F G A B C# D# F G A B C D E F# G# A# C D E F# G# A# Each row of keys is a half step away from its neighboring rows, and on each row of keys the interval from one note to the next is a whole step. This key layout results in all chords and scales having the same "shape" on the keyboard with the same fingerings regardless of key, unlike a traditional keyboard. A scale played with all whole steps sounds very different from a regular musical scale.

External links


- [http://www.pianoworld.com/fun/janko.htm Pianoworld article]



Piano

This article is about the modern musical instrument. For other meanings, see piano (disambiguation). piano (disambiguation) A piano is a keyboard instrument widely used in western music for accompaniment, composition, solo performance, and as a rehearsal aid. It produces sound by striking metal strings with felt hammers. The vibrations are transmitted to a soundboard by a bridge. The word piano is a short form of the word "pianoforte", which is in turn derived from the original Italian name for the instrument, clavicembalo col piano e forte. Literally harpsichord with soft and loud, this refers to the ability of the piano to produce notes at different volumes depending on how hard its keys are pressed. The name "pianoforte" is considered a formal term and is seldom used. As a keyboard stringed instrument, the piano is similar to the clavichord and harpsichord. The three instruments differ in the mechanism of sound production. In a harpsichord, strings are plucked by quills or similar material. In the clavichord, strings are struck by tangents which remain in contact with the string. In a piano, the strings are struck by hammers which immediately rebound, leaving the string to vibrate freely.

Early history

Bartolomeo Cristofori of Florence, Italy, invented the first pianoforte. He called it a gravicembelo col piano e forte. When he built this instrument is not entirely clear, but an inventory made by Cristofori's employers, the Medici family, indicates the existence of an early Cristofori instrument by the year 1700. Cristofori built only about twenty pianofortes before he died in 1731; the three that survive today date from the 1720s. Like many other inventions, the pianoforte was founded on earlier technological innovations. In particular, it benefited from centuries of work on the harpsichord, which had shown the most effective ways to construct the case, the soundboard, the bridge, and the keyboard. Cristofori was himself a harpsichord maker and well acquainted with this body of knowledge. Cristofori's great success was to solve, without any prior example, the fundamental mechanical problem of piano design: the hammers must strike the string but not continue to touch it once they have struck (which would damp the sound). Moreover, the hammers must return to their rest position without bouncing violently, and it must be possible to repeat a note rapidly. Cristofori's piano action served as a model for the many different approaches to piano actions that were to follow. Cristofori's early instruments were made with thin strings and were much quieter than the modern piano. However, in comparison with the clavichord (the only previous keyboard instrument capable of dynamic nuance) they were considerably louder, with greater sustain. Cristofori's new instrument remained relatively unknown until an Italian writer, Scipione Maffei, wrote an enthusiastic article about it (1711), including a diagram of the mechanism. This article was widely distributed, and most of the next generation of piano builders started their work as a result of reading it. One of these builders was Gottfried Silbermann, better known as an organ builder. Silbermann's pianos were virtually direct copies of Cristofori's, but with an important exception: Silbermann invented the forerunner of the modern damper pedal (also known as the sustaining pedal or loud pedal), which permits the dampers to be lifted from all the strings at once. Virtually all subsequent pianos incorporated some version of Silbermann's idea. Silbermann showed Bach one of his early instruments in the 1730s. Bach did not like it at that time, claiming that the higher notes were too soft to allow a full dynamic range. Though this earned him some animosity from Silbermann, the latter did apparently heed the criticism. Bach did approve of a later instrument he saw in 1747, and apparently even served as an agent to help sell Silbermann's pianos. Piano-making flourished during the late 18th century in the work of the Viennese school, which included Johann Andreas Stein (who worked in Augsburg, Germany) and the Viennese makers Nannette Stein (daughter of Johann Andreas) and Anton Walter. The Viennese-style pianos were built with wooden frames, two strings per note, and had leather-covered hammers. It was for such instruments that Mozart composed his concertos and sonatas, and replicas of them are built today for use in authentic-instrument performance. The piano of Mozart's day had a softer, clearer tone than today's pianos, with less sustaining power. The term fortepiano is nowadays often used to distinguish the 18th-century style of instrument from later pianos. For further information on the earlier part of piano history, see fortepiano.

Development of the modern piano

In the lengthy period lasting from about 1790 to 1890, the Mozart-era piano underwent tremendous changes which ultimately led to the modern form of the instrument. This evolution was in response to a consistent preference by composers and pianists for a more powerful, sustained piano sound. It was also a response to the ongoing Industrial Revolution, which made available technological resources like high-quality steel for strings (see piano wire) and precision casting for the production of iron frames. Over time, piano playing became a more strenuous and muscle-taxing activity, as the force needed to depress the keys, as well as the length of key travel, was increased. The tonal range of the piano was also increased, from the five octaves of Mozart's day to the 7 1/3 (or even more) octaves found on modern pianos. In the first part of this era, technological progress owed much to the English firm of Broadwood, which already had a strong reputation for the splendour and powerful tone of its harpsichords. Over time, the Broadwood instruments grew progressively larger, louder, and more robustly constructed. The Broadwood firm, which sent pianos to both Haydn and Beethoven, was the first to build pianos with a range of more than five octaves: five octaves and a fifth during the 1790s, six by 1810 (in time for Beethoven to use the extra notes in his later works), and seven by 1820. The Viennese makers followed these trends. The two schools, however, used different piano actions: the Broadwood one more robust, the Viennese more sensitive. By the 1820s, the centre of innovation had shifted to the Érard firm of Paris, which built pianos used by Chopin and Liszt. In 1821, Sébastien Érard invented the double escapement action, which permitted a note to be repeated even if the key had not yet risen to its maximum vertical position, a great benefit for rapid playing. As revised by Henri Herz about 1840, the double escapement action ultimately became the standard action for grand pianos, used by all manufacturers. Some other important technical innovations of this era include the following:
- use of three strings rather than two for all but the lower notes
- the iron frame. The iron frame, also called the "plate", sits atop the soundboard, and serves as the primary bulwark against the force of string tension. The iron frame was the ultimate solution to the problem of structural integrity as the strings were gradually made thicker, tenser, and more numerous (in a modern grand the total string tension can approach 20 tons). The iron frame was invented in 1825 in Boston by Alpheus Babcock, culminating an earlier trend to use ever more iron parts to reinforce the piano. Babcock later worked for the Chickering firm, where the first iron frame in grand pianos (1840) was developed.
- felt hammers. The harder, tauter steel strings required a softer hammer type to maintain good tone quality. Hammers covered with compressed felt were introduced by the Parisian maker Jean-Henri Pape in 1826, and are now universally used.
- the sostenuto pedal (see below), invented in 1844 by Jean Louis Boisselot and improved by the Steinway firm in 1874.
- the overstrung scale, also called "cross-stringing". This is a special arrangement of strings within the case: the strings are placed in a vertically overlapping slanted arrangement, with two heights of bridges on the soundboard instead of just one. The purpose of the overstrung scale is to permit larger, but not necessarily longer, strings to fit within the case of the piano. Overstringing was invented by Jean-Henri Pape during the 1820s, and first patented for use in grand pianos in the United States by Henry Steinway Jr. in 1859. 1859
- duplex scaling, invented by Theodore Steinway in 1872, permits the parts of the string near its ends, which otherwise would be damped with cloth, to vibrate freely, thus increasing resonance and adding to the richness of the sound. Aliquot stringing, which serves a similar purpose in Blüthner pianos, was invented by Julius Blüthner in 1873. The modern concert grand achieved essentially its present form around the beginning of the 20th century, and progress since then has been only incremental. For some recent developments, see Innovations in the piano. Some early pianos had shapes and designs that are no longer in use. The once-popular square piano was an inexpensive design that had the strings and frame on a horizontal plane, but running across the length of the keyboard rather than away from it. It was similar to the upright piano in its mechanism. Square pianos were produced through the early 20th century; the tone they produced is widely considered to be inferior. Most had a wood frame, though later designs incorporated increasing amounts of iron. The giraffe piano, by contrast, was mechanically like a grand piano, but the strings ran vertically up from the keyboard rather than horizontally away from it, making it a very tall instrument. These were uncommon.

History and musical performance

The huge changes in the evolution of the piano have somewhat vexing consequences for musical performance. The problem is that much of the most widely admired music for piano—for example, that of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven was composed for a type of instrument that is rather different from the modern instruments on which this music is normally performed today. Even the music of the early Romantics, such as Chopin and Schumann, was written for pianos substantially different from ours. One view that is sometimes taken is that these composers were dissatisfied with their pianos, and in fact were writing visionary "music of the future" with a more robust sound in mind. This view is perhaps more plausible in the case of Beethoven, who composed at the beginning of the era of piano growth, than it is in the case of Haydn or Mozart. Others have noted that the music itself often seems to require the resources of the early piano. For example, Beethoven sometimes wrote long passages in which he directs the player to keep the damper pedal down throughout (a famous example occurs in the last movement of the "Waldstein" sonata, Op. 53). These come out rather blurred on a modern piano if played as written but work well on (restored or replicated) pianos of Beethoven's day. Similarly, the classical composers sometimes would write passages in which a lower violin line accompanies a higher piano line in parallel; this was a reasonable thing to do at a time when piano tone was more penetrating than violin tone; today it is the reverse. Current performance practice is a mix. A few pianists simply ignore the problem; others modify their playing style to help compensate for the difference in instruments, for example by using less pedal. Finally, participants in the authentic performance movement have constructed new copies of the old instruments and used them in performance; this has provided important new insights and interpretations of the music.

Modern piano

Types

Modern pianos come in two basic configurations and several sizes: the grand piano and the upright piano. Grand pianos have the frame and strings placed horizontally, with the strings extending away from the keyboard. This avoids the problems inherent in an upright piano, but takes up a large amount of space and needs a spacious room with high ceilings for proper resonance. Several sizes of grand piano exist. Manufacturers and models vary, but as a rough guide we can distinguish the "concert grand", approx. 3 m; the "grand", approx. 1.8 m; and the smaller "baby grand", which may be a bit shorter than it is wide. All else being equal, longer pianos have better sound and lower inharmonicity of the strings (so that the strings can be tuned closer to equal temperament in relation to the standard pitch with less stretching), so that full-size grands are almost always used for public concerts, whereas baby grands are only for domestic use where space and cost are crucial considerations. equal temperament Upright pianos, also called vertical pianos, are more compact because the frame and strings are placed vertically, extending in both directions from the keyboard and hammers. It is considered harder to produce a sensitive piano action when the hammers move sideways, rather than upward against gravity; however, the very best upright pianos now approach the level of grand pianos of the same size in tone quality and responsiveness. For recent advances, see Innovations in the piano. In 1863, Henri Fourneaux invented the player piano, a kind of piano which "plays itself" from a piano roll without the need for a pianist. Also in the 19th century, toy pianos began to be manufactured. A relatively recent development is the prepared piano, which is a piano adapted in some way by placing objects inside the instrument, or changing its mechanism in some way. Since the 1980s, digital pianos have been available, which use digital sampling technology to reproduce the sound of each piano note. Digital pianos have become quite sophisticated, with standard pedals, weighted keys, multiple voices, MIDI interfaces, and so on in the better models. However, with current technology, it remains difficult to duplicate a crucial aspect of acoustic pianos, namely that when the damper pedal (see below) is depressed, the strings not struck vibrate sympathetically with the struck strings. Since this sympathetic vibration is considered central to a beautiful piano tone, digital pianos are still not considered by most experts as competing with the best acoustic pianos in tone quality. Progress is now being made in this area by including physical models of sympathetic vibration in the synthesis software.

Keyboard

Almost every modern piano has 88 keys (seven octaves and a bit, from A0 to C8). Many older pianos only have 85 (from A0 to A7), while some manufacturers extend the range further in one or both directions. The most notable example of an extended range can be found on Bösendorfer pianos, some of which extend the normal range downwards to F0, with others going as far as a bottom C0, making a full eight octave range. On some models these extra keys are hidden under a small hinged lid, which can be flipped down to cover the keys and avoid visual disorientation in a pianist unfamiliar with the extended keyboard; on others, the colours of the extra keys are reversed (black instead of white and vice versa) for the same reason. The extra keys are added primarily for increased resonance; that is, they vibrate sympathetically with other strings whenever the damper pedal is depressed and thus give a fuller tone. Only a very small number of works composed for piano actually use these notes. More recently, the Stuart and Sons company has also manufactured extended-range pianos. On their instruments, the range is extended up the treble for a full eight octaves. The extra keys are the same as the other keys in appearance. For the arrangement of the keys on a piano keyboard, see Musical keyboard. This arrangement was inherited from the harpsichord without change, with the trivial exception of the colour scheme (white for naturals and black for sharps) which became standard for pianos in the late 18th century.

Pedals

Pianos have had pedals, or some close equivalent, since the earliest days. (In the 18th century, some pianos used levers pressed upward by the player's knee instead of pedals.) The three pedals that have become more or less standard on the modern piano are the following. The damper pedal (also called the sustaining pedal or loud pedal) is often simply called "the pedal," since it is the most frequently used. It is placed as the rightmost pedal in the group. Every note on the piano, except the top two octaves, is equipped with a damper, which is a padded device that prevents the strings from vibrating. The damper is raised off the strings of its note whenever the key for that note is pressed. When the damper pedal is pressed, all the dampers on the piano are lifted at once, so that every string can vibrate. This serves two purposes. First, it permits notes to be connected (i.e., played legato) when there is no fingering that would make this possible. More important, raising the damper pedal causes all the strings to vibrate sympathetically with whatever notes are being played, which greatly enriches the tone. Piano music starting with Chopin tends to be heavily pedalled, as a means of achieving a singing tone. In contrast, the damper pedal was used only sparingly by the composers of the 18th century, including Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven; in that era, pedalling was considered primarily as a special coloristic effect. The soft pedal or "una corda" pedal is placed leftmost in the row of pedals. On a grand piano, this pedal shifts the action to one side slightly, so that hammers that normally strike all three of the strings for a note strike only two of them. This softens the note and also modifies its tone quality. For notation of the soft pedal in printed music, see Italian musical terms. The soft pedal was invented by Cristofori and thus appeared on the very earliest pianos. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, the soft pedal was more effective than today, since it was possible at that time to use it to strike three, two or even just one string per note—this is the origin of the name "una corda", Italian for "one string". In modern pianos, the strings are spaced too closely to permit a true "una corda" effect—if shifted far enough to strike just one string on one note, the hammers would also strike the string of the next note over. On upright pianos, the soft pedal is replaced by a mechanism for moving the hammers' resting position closer to the strings. This reduces volume, but does not change tone quality as a true "una corda" pedal does. Digital pianos often use this pedal to alter the sound of other instruments like organs, guitars, and harmonicas. Pitch bends, leslie speaker on/off, vibrato modulation, etc. increase the already-great versatility of such instruments. The sostenuto pedal or "middle pedal" maintains in the raised position any damper that was raised at the moment the pedal was depressed. It makes it possible to sustain some notes (depress the sostenuto pedal before releasing the notes to be sustained) while the player's hands have moved on to play other notes, which can be useful for musical passages with pedal points and other tricky situations. The sostenuto pedal was the last of the three pedals to be added to the standard piano, and to this day many cheap pianos—and even a few good ones— do not have a sostenuto pedal. (Almost all modern grand pianos have a sostenuto; most upright pianos do not.) A number of twentieth-century works call for the use of this pedal. Over the years, the middle pedal has served many different functions. Some upright pianos have a practice pedal in place of the sostenuto. This pedal, which can usually be locked in place by depressing it and pushing it to one side, drops a strip of felt between the hammers and the keys so that all the notes are greatly muted— a handy feature for those who wish to practice at odd hours without disturbing others in the house. The practice pedal is rarely used in performance. Other uprights have a bass sustain as a middle pedal. It works the same as the damper pedal except it only lifts the dampers for the low end notes. Irving Berlin's famed Transposing Piano used the middle pedal as a clutch to shift the keyboard with a lever. The entire action of the piano would shift to allow the operator to play in any key.

Materials

Many parts of a piano are made of materials selected for extreme sturdiness. In quality pianos, the outer rim of the piano is made of a hardwood, normally maple or beech. According to [http://www.speech.kth.se/music/5_lectures/conklin/thepianocase.html Harold A. Conklin], the purpose of a sturdy rim is so that "the vibrational energy will stay as much as possible in the soundboard instead of dissipating uselessly in the case parts, which are inefficient radiators of sound." The rim is normally made by laminating flexible strips of hardwood to the desired shape, a system that was developed by Theodore Steinway in 1880. The thick wooden braces at the bottom (grands) or back (uprights) of the piano are not as acoustically important as the rim, and are often made of a softwood, even in top-quality pianos, in order to save weight. The pinblock, which holds the tuning pins in place, is another area of the piano where toughness is important. It is made of hardwood, and generally is laminated (built of multiple layers) for additional strength and gripping power. Piano strings (also called piano wire), which must endure years of extreme tension and hard blows, are made of high quality steel. They are manufactured to vary as little as possible in diameter, since all deviations from uniformity introduce tonal distortion. The bass strings of a piano are made of a steel core wrapped with copper wire, to increase their flexibility. For the acoustic reasons behind this, see Piano acoustics. The plate, or metal frame, of a piano is usually made of cast iron. It is advantageous for the plate to be quite massive. Since the strings are attached to the plate at one end, any vibrations transmitted to the plate will result in loss of energy to the desired (efficient) channel of sound transmission, namely the bridge and the soundboard. Some manufacturers now use cast steel in their plates, for greater strength. The casting of the plate is a delicate art, since the dimensions are crucial and the iron shrinks by about one percent during cooling. The inclusion in a piano of an extremely large piece of metal is potentially an aesthetic handicap. Piano makers overcome this handicap by polishing, painting, and decorating the plate; often plates include the manufacturer's ornamental medallion and can be strikingly attractive. The numerous [http://www.pianosupply.com/anonftp/grand1.jpg grand parts] and [http://www.pianosupply.com/anonftp/upright.jpg upright parts] of a piano action are generally hardwood (e.g. maple, beech. hornbeam). World War II brought about plastics which were originally incorporated into some pianos in the 1940s and 1950s, but were clearly disastrous, crystallizing and losing their strength after only a few decades of use. The Steinway firm once incorporated Teflon, a synthetic material developed by DuPont, for some grand action parts in place of cloth, but ultimately abandoned the experiment due to an inherent "clicking" which invariably developed over time. More recently, the Kawai firm has built pianos with action parts made of more modern and effective plastics such as nylon; these parts have held up better and have generally received the respect of piano technicians. nylon The part of the piano where materials probably matter more than anywhere else is the soundboard. In quality pianos this is made of solid spruce (that is, spruce boards glued together at their edges). Spruce is chosen for its high ratio of strength to weight. The best piano makers use close-grained, quarter-sawn, defect-free spruce, and make sure that it has been carefully dried over a long period of time before making it into soundboards. In cheap pianos, the soundboard is often laminated; i.e. made of plywood. Piano keys are generally made of spruce or basswood, for lightness. Spruce is normally used in high-quality pianos. Traditionally, the sharps (black keys) were made from ebony and the flats (white keys) were covered with strips of ivory, but since ivory-yielding species are now endangered and protected by treaty, plastics are now almost exclusively used. [http://www.pianoparts.com/pcgi/finder/keyword=7e05127 Legal ivory] can still be obtained in limited quantities. At one time the Yamaha firm innovated a plastic called "Ivorine" or "Ivorite", since imitated by [http://www.pianoparts.com/pcgi/finder/keyword=7e05121 other makers], that mimics the feel and/or look of ivory on the player's fingers. The requirement of structural strength, fulfilled with stout hardwood and thick metal, makes pianos heavy. Even a small upright can weigh 136 kg (300 lb), and the Steinway concert grand (Model D) weighs 480 kg (990 lb). The largest piano built, the Fazioli F308, weighs 691 kg (1520 lb).

Care and maintenance

:Main article: Care and maintenance of pianos Pianos are regularly tuned to keep them up to pitch and produce a pleasing sound; they are, ideally, tuned to the internationally recognised standard concert pitch of A = 440 Hz. The hammers of pianos are voiced to compensate for gradual hardening. Top-quality but aged pianos can be restored, replacing a great number of their parts to produce an instrument closely similar to a new one.

Role of the piano

The piano is a crucial instrument in Western classical music, jazz, film, television and electronic game music, and most other complex musical genres. A large number of composers are pianists, and they frequently use the piano as a tool for composition. Pianos were and are extremely popular instruments for private household ownership, especially among the middle- and upper-class. As such, pianos have gained a place in the popular consciousness, and are sometimes referred to by nicknames, including: "the eighty-eight," "the ivories," and "the black(s) and white(s)." See also: Social history of the piano

Further reading


- The authoritative New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (available in libraries and online as a fee site), contains a wealth of information on the piano. Main article: "Pianoforte".
- The Encyclopedia Britannica (available in libraries and online as a fee site) also includes a great deal of information about the piano. In the 1988 edition, the primary article can be found in "Musical Instruments".
- The Piano Book by Larry Fine (4th ed. Jamaica Plain, MA: Brookside Press, 2001; ISBN 1-929145-01-2) gives the basics of how pianos work, and a thorough evaluative survey of current pianos and their manufacturers. It also includes advice on buying and owning pianos.
- The pianist's guide to pedaling by Joseph Banowetz (Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1985) offers a history of the three piano pedals and covers the wide variety of ways in which they are used by professional pianists.
- Piano roles : three hundred years of life with the piano by James Parakilas (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999) provides much history of the instrument.

See also


- Innovations in the piano
- Musical tuning
- Pianist
- Piano acoustics
- Piano key frequencies (in equal temperament)
- Player piano
  - Piano roll
- Piano practice
- Prepared piano
- Social history of the piano
- String piano
- Tangent piano

Related lists


- Lists of solo piano pieces
- List of famous piano makers

Other types of pianos

With the exception of the toy piano, these instruments are called "piano" by virtue of being keyboard instruments but are electric or electronic in nature, not acoustic.
- Digital piano
- Electric piano
- Rhodes piano
- Stage piano
- Toy piano

Related instruments


- Clavichord
- Hammered dulcimer
- Harpsichord

External links


- [http://www.uk-piano.org/history/history.html UK Piano Page, Piano History]
- [http://www.ashburnham.org/Frederickcollection/index.htm The Frederick Historical Piano Collection]
- [http://www.ptg.org Piano Technicians Guild]
- [http://www.steinway.com/technical/caring.shtml "Caring for your Steinway"] from Steinway and Sons
- [http://www.schimmel-piano.de/e/guter-rat.html Maintenance advice from the Schimmel piano company]
- [http://www.newmusicbox.org/page.nmbx?id=54tp00 88 Keys to Freedom: Segues Through the History of American Piano Music] by 'Blue' Gene Tyranny
- [http://rvpiano.syntheway.net/ Syntheway´s Realistic Virtual Piano ]
- [http://www.geocities.com/kumiko1400/ List of musical instruments software ]
- [http://members.aol.com/cc88m/PianoBook.html Multilingual advice on professional piano practicing techniques]
- [http://www.hammerfluegel.net history of the grand piano - photoarchive]
- Category:Keyboard instruments ko:피아노 ja:ピアノ th:เปียโน

Paul von Janko

Paul von Janko (1856 – 1919) was a Hungarian mathematician, scientist, engineer, and musician. Von Janko, Paul Von Janko, Paul Von Janko, Paul Von Janko, Paul

Musical scale

In music, a scale is a set of musical notes in order by pitch, either ascending or descending. A scale is contrasted with a musical mode in one of two ways:
- as a pattern of notes or pitches regardless of tonic or other notes' importance, as opposed to a scale with a tonic and possible frame
- as an ordered collection of notes or pitches, as opposed to a series of intervals, which is a musical mode. Each note in a scale is referred to as a scale degree. Though the scales from musical traditions around the world are often quite different, the pitches of the notes in any given scale are usually related by mathematical rules. Scales may be described according to the intervals they contain, for example
- tonal, modal, diatonic, chromatic, synthetic or by the number of different pitch classes they contain:
- most common: pentatonic, hexatonic, heptatonic or five, six, and seven tone scales, respectively.
- used in prehistoric music: ditonic or two, tritonic or three, tetratonic or four
- in modern classical music: octatonic or eight. Scales are often abstracted from performance or composition, though they are often used precompositionally to guide or limit a composition. One or more scales may be used in a composition, such as in Claude Debussy's L'Isle Joyeuse. L'Isle Joyeuse

Scales in Western music

Scales in traditional Western music generally consist of seven notes, made up of a root note and six other scale degrees whose pitches lie between the root and the root's first octave. Notes in the commonly used scales (see just below) are separated by whole and half step intervals of tones and semitones (the harmonic minor scale including a three-semitone interval; the pentatonic including two of these). There are a number of different types of scales used commonly in Western music, including:
- The major scale (seven notes)
- The minor scale (seven notes)
- The chromatic scale (twelve notes)
- The modal scales (seven notes)
- The whole tone scale (six notes)
- The pentatonic scale (five notes) Synthetic scales:
- The diminished scales (also known as octatonic)
- The altered scale
- The Phrygian dominant scale (also called "Spanish" or "Jewish")
- The Arabic scale
- The psychoacoustical scales

Scale degrees

A scale degree is a numeric position of a note within a scale ordered by increasing pitch. The simplest system is to name each degree after its numerical position in the scale, for example: the first, the fourth. Because intervals are inclusive, a fifth describes a note which is four notes after the tonic. Major scales have seven notes which are named, in order: tonic, supertonic, mediant, subdominant, dominant, submediant, leading-tone (or leading-note). Also commonly used is the "movable do" solfege naming convention in which each scale degree is given a syllable. In the major scale, the solfege syllables are: Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, Ti (or Si), Do (or Ut).

On the Origin of Scales

A current viewpoint indicates tonal scales and tonality arise from overtones and can be found at http://www.greenwych.ca/natbasis.htm and also in the 2004 book: "On the Origin of Music" by Bob Fink (Greenwich Publ., Canada). The theory is called the "trio theory," claiming that influence from the most audible overtones of the three most nearly universal intervals (found across time & cultures), namely, a tone's octave, 4th and 5th, when placed within the range of that octave, will evolve into the most widespread of scales: Pentatonic, major & minor (depending how many of the audible overtones are so placed). The unequal audibile strengths of the overtones determine the role & power of each note in a scale (tonic, dominant or subdominant) -- i.e., tonality and tonal scales.

Non-Western scales

In traditional Western music, scale degrees are most often separated by equally tempered tones or semitones, creating at most, twelve pitches. Many other musical traditions employ scales that include other intervals or a different number of pitches. In the middle eastern Hejaz scale, there are some intervals of three semitones. Gamelan music uses a small variety of scales including Pélog and Sléndro, none including equally tempered intervals. Ragas in Indian classical music often employ intervals smaller than a semitone (Callow & Sheperd, 1972; Jhairazbhoy & Stone, 1963). Arab music maqams may use quarter tone intervals (Zonis, 1973). In both ragas and maqams, the distance between a note and an inflection (e.g., shruti) of that same note may be less than a semitone.

Microtonal scales

The term microtonal music usually refers to music with roots in traditional Western music that employs non-standard scales or scale intervals. The composer Harry Partch made custom musical instruments to play compositions that employed a 43-note scale system, and the American jazz vibraphonist Emil Richards experimented with such scales in his 'Microtonal Blues Band' in the 1970s. John Cage, the American experimental composer also created works for prepared piano which use varied, sometimes random, scales. Microtonal scales are also used in traditional Indian Raga music, which has a variety of modes which are used not only as modes or scales but also as defining elements of the song, or raga.

Jazz and blues

Through the introduction of blue notes, jazz and blues employ scale intervals smaller than a semitone. See also: jazz scales. The blue note is an interval that is technically neither major or minor but 'in-between', giving it a characteristic flavour. For instance, in the key of E, the blue note would be either, a note between G and G# or a note moving between both. In blues a pentatonic scale is often used. In jazz many different modes and scales are used, often within the same piece of music. Chromatic scales are common, especially in modern jazz.

Chords

The notes in a chord are usually a subset of a particular scale, in the common practice period being built upward by thirds from a particular scale degree. Thus in a C major scale: CDEFGAB, a chord built on C is the notes CEG.

Patterns

Patterns like repetitive licks, or melodic patterns are made from taking bits and pieces of scale patterns and improvising. You'll hear this most commonly in heavy metal music.

Psychoacoustical scales

The bark scale and the mel scale are two psychoacoustical scales.

Source


- Burns, Edward M. (1999). "Intervals, Scales, and Tuning", The Psychology of Music second edition. Deutsch, Diana, ed. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0122135644.
- Zonis, E. (1973). Classical Persian music: An Introduction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Category:Music theory ko:음계 ja:音階

External links


- http://musicianswiki.com/index.php/scales Lots of scales (including exotic ones) with midi examples.
- http://www.skytopia.com/project/scale.html
- http://home.austin.rr.com/jmjensen/musicTheory.html
- http://www.greenwych.ca/natbasis.htm (Evolution of Scales)
- http://www.greenwych.ca/cycl-5-2.htm (7-Note Solution -- why history & archaeologists turns up so many 5 and 7 note scales)
- http://www.greenwych.ca/fl-compl.htm (Oldest known "Neanderthal flute" plays do-re-mi-fa scalenotes.)
- http://www.guitarrevelations.com/index.htm
- http://www.banjolin.co.uk/modes/scales.htm (Modes and Scales for Traditional Music)

Local on the 8s

The Weather Channel (TWC) is a cable and satellite television network that revolutionized the reporting of weather and weather-related news by being on 24 hours a day. The Weather Channel is headquartered in Vinings, Georgia, near Atlanta.

History

Atlanta (right) featured from a TWC broadcast in 1996.]] 1996, 2002 broadcast.]] The Weather Channel went on the air on May 2, 1982 and reports the weather and other meteorological information for the United States as well as other countries and regions of the world. TWC originally gathered its local forecasts from local National Weather Service offices, but since 2002 has done local forecasting in-house; however, current weather and forecast model data is still provided by the National Weather Service, and the ultraviolet index is from the Environmental Protection Agency. TWC also uses special proprietary equipment that inserts local weather forecast and warning information if it is viewed on a cable TV system. The original WeatherStar technology has been upgraded on most cable systems to IntelliStar, including Vocal Local to announce the three-day local forecast. Satellite viewers see a roundup of local TWC forecasts for major cities across the U.S., as well as satellite and radar images, and severe weather watch and warning maps when active. The Weather Channel produces a service. based on modified versions of WeatherStar technology, called Weatherscan, on which a separate channel constantly displays local and regional conditions and forecasts, along with The Weather Channel's logo and advertisements. TWC's sister channel in Canada is The Weather Network in English and MétéoMédia in French, which uses similar technology that is currently in use in the USA. TWC also ran The Weather Channel Latin America (TWCLA), which operated in Spanish in Mexico, Puerto Rico and Spanish-speaking South America. TWCLA ceased operations in December 2002. TWC also runs websites in Brazil (Canaldo Tempo), the United Kingdom (Weather Channel), France (Meteo 123) and Germany (Wetter 123). A UK version of The Weather Channel ran from 1 September 1996 to 30 January 1998, when it was closed due to low viewing figures. The Weather Channel is a wholly owned subsidiary of Landmark Communications. A definitive history of the network, The Weather Channel: The Improbable Rise of a Media Phenomenon, by Frank Batten and Jeffrey L. Cruikshank, was published by Harvard Business Press in May 2002, on TWC's 20th anniversary. In March 2005, The Weather Channel announced that it would receive a new logo/tagline, "Bringing Weather to Life," replacing the 2001 "Live By it" campaign. This change occurred on August 15, 2005. As a part of this rebranding, changes in formats and programming are expected to take place as part of a gradual transition.

The Weather Channel logo

The Weather Channel's most recognized logo started out as a slightly-squished blue rectangular box that debuted on TWC’s first broadcast on May 2, 1982. This logo would later be revised in 1996, with the corners and "Weather Channel" text font less rounded. The URL text "[http://www.weather.com weather.com]" was permanently added underneath the logo in 1999. More recently, in August 2005, the logo was re-overhauled; the blue rectangle’s corners are straight, and the "Weather Channel" text is now in lower-case and left-justified. Image:Twc logo.gif|The classic Weather Channel logo, used from 1982-1996. Image:Twc logo resized.jpg|The old Weather Channel logo used up until 1996-2005. Image:160x120 twc logo05.jpg|The current Weather Channel logo, debuted August 15, 2005.

Local on the 8s

Local on the 8s airs every 10 minutes. During this segment, weather information for the local area is given. The reason for the name is that it airs at times that end in "8". Before this was implemented, the local forecast was only seen two times every hour, according to The Weather Channel in the past.

Current Programs

2005]] 2005]] 2005]] 2005]] 2005]] 2005]] 2005]] 2005]] 2005]] 2005]] 2005]]

On-Camera Meteorologists

Current


- Kristina Abernathy, Co-Anchor, Weekend Now
- Stephanie Abrams, Field Reporter, Weekend View
- Hillary Andrews, Co-Anchor, Evening Edition (West Coast)
- Adam Berg, Weather.com Broadcaster
- Mike Bettes, Co-Anchor, Evening Edition Weekend
- Vivian Brown, Co-Anchor, Afternoon Outlook
- Jim Cantore, Storm Tracker, Evening Edition
- Jennifer Carfagno, Travel Analyst, First Outlook
- Kelly Cass, Co-Anchor, Weekend View
- Betty Davis, Co-Anchor, Weekend Weather Center
- Eboni Deon, Co-Anchor, Weekend Outlook
- Kristin Dodd, Co-Anchor, Weekend Weather Center
- Paul Goodloe, Co-Anchor, Evening Edition
- Ryan Goswick
- Rich Johnson, Co-Anchor, Weather Center
- Jeanetta Jones, Co-Anchor, Weather Center
- Bill Keneely, Co-Anchor, Weekend View
- Paul Kocin
- Cheryl Lemke, Co-Anchor, PM Edition Weekend
- Sarah Libby, Weather.com Broadcaster
- Jennifer Lopez, Co-Anchor, PM Edition
- Warren Madden
- Mark Mancuso, Co-Anchor, Weekend Outlook
- Nicole Mitchell, Travel Analyst, Your Weather Today
- Jeff Morrow, Co-Anchor, Afternoon Outlook
- Carl Parker, Co-Anchor, PM Edition
- Kim Perez, Co-Anchor, First Outlook
- Sharon Resultan, Co-Anchor, Evening Edition Weekend
- Kevin Robinson, Co-Anchor, Weekend Now
- Dave Schwartz, Co-Anchor, Evening Edition (West Coast)
- Marshall Seese, Co-Anchor, Your Weather Today
- Mike Seidel, Co-Anchor, PM Edition Weekend
- Dennis Smith
- Alexandra Steele, Co-Anchor, Evening Edition
- Bob Stokes
- Heather Tesch, Co-Anchor, Your Weather Today
- Dao Vu, Host, Weekend View
- Nick Walker, Co-Anchor, First Outlook

Past


- Will Annen
- Carl Arredondo
- Ray Ban
- Fred Barnhill
- Diane Barone
- Melissa Barrington
- Andre Bernier
- Mike Bono
- Jill Brown
- Mary Brown
- Dale Bryan
- Don Buser
- Declan Cannon
- Kam Carman
- John Coleman
- Janine D'Adamo (Current name is Janine Albert)
- Gay Dawson
- Dale Dockus
- Brian Durst
- Dale Eck
- Bruce Edwards
- Chris Edwards
- George Elliot
- Paul Emmick
- David Grant
- Rick Griffin
- Chuck Herring
- John Hope, Hurricane Expert
- Charlie Levy
- Gary Ley
- Bonnie McLaughlin
- Vince Miller
- Karen Minton
- Tom Moore, Jr.
- Liza Mozer
- Jon Nese, Storm Analyst
- Cindy Preszler
- Kevan Ramer
- Lane Roberts
- Gene Rubin
- Jodi Saeland
- Sally Schmies
- Bill Schubert
- Norm Sebastian
- Lisa Spencer
- Marny Stanier
- Terri Smith
- Melissa Tuttle
- Charlie Welsh
- Vicki Williams

Slogans


- "You Need Us, The Weather Channel, For Everything You Do" (1986–1991)
- "Weather You Can Always Turn To" (1991–1995)
- "No Place on Earth Has Better Weather" (1996–1999)
- "Live By It" (2001–2005)
- "Bringing Weather to Life" (2005–present)

External links


- [http://www.weather.com/ The Weather Channel (weather.com)]
- [http://www.weather.ca/ The Weather Network]
- [http://www.lcimedia.com/ Landmark Communications]
- The book [http://harvardbusinessonline.hbsp.harvard.edu/b01/en/common/item_detail.jhtml?id=5599 The Weather Channel: The Improbable Rise of a Media Phenomenon]
- [http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/article/ds20121.html News regarding TWC's 2005 relaunch] Weather Channel, The Weather Channel, The Weather Channel, The

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